Microgrid Market

How big is the Microgrid Market in 2026?

The global microgrid market is estimated at USD 18.2 billion in 2026, compared with USD 16.5 billion in 2025, and is forecast to reach USD 47.8 billion by 2036, expanding at a CAGR of 10.1% from 2026 to 2036.

Demand for microgrid systems is supported by investments in industrial power reliability and the integration of renewable energy with existing electricity networks. Grid-tied systems account for 72.0% of the market by configuration in 2026, while commercial and industrial facilities contribute 68.0% by application. Hybrid renewable systems represent 45.0% of new installations by count. Government funding is also supporting microgrid development in areas where electricity supply remains unreliable. In May 2026, the US Department of Energy announced up to USD 2.5 million in direct project support and approximately USD 1 million in technical assistance through its Community Microgrid Assistance Partnership. The programme prioritises remote communities and large industrial electricity consumers, including critical mineral operations and computing facilities. Industrial manufacturers are also investing in on-site generation and storage capabilities. In May 2026, Siemens commissioned a 1.25 MW AC solar microgrid with 3.9 MWh of battery storage at its Wendell manufacturing facility in North Carolina. The installation operates on Duke Energy's distribution network and can supply the facility independently during grid outages. According to Siemens, the project and other campus energy improvements reduced annual grid electricity consumption by 2.07 GWh. The system can also export surplus electricity through net energy metering, providing an additional commercial benefit alongside improved manufacturing reliability.

Key Market Trends & Insights

• Sandia's distributed-energy laboratory tests communications interoperability, grid compatibility and safety. [3] Its evaluation scope treats the controller and connected resources as a system, giving multi-vendor projects a test route beyond checking each component separately.
• Nexans' July 2026 AmpaCity demonstration uses a 700 V DC bus and two 30 kW fast chargers, with solar panels still planned. [4] The project gives DC equipment suppliers an installed charging and storage reference ahead of the proposed generation stage, separating the initial DC infrastructure from the later solar connection.

Regional Highlights

• North American remote-community development has a dedicated engineering route. DOE's May 2026 C-MAP solicitation offered selected US projects USD 200,000 to USD 575,000 plus up to 24 months of support. [5] These are development and implementation awards for eligible remote areas, rather than a general subsidy for every commercial microgrid.
• In East Asia, network operators remain central to local microgrid development. China's December 2025 guidance calls for coordinated main-grid, distribution and microgrid planning. [7] Japan's Hinode project, which entered operation in March 2026, brings public bodies, the distribution utility and private energy companies into an operating consortium. [6][20] These arrangements place local supply within the wider network's planning and operating structure.

Table 1: Microgrid Market Size and Forecast, 2025 to 2036

Market size and forecast	Value
Market size in 2025	USD 16.5 billion
Estimated market size in 2026	USD 18.2 billion
Projected market size by 2036	USD 47.8 billion
CAGR from 2026 to 2036	10.1%
Added revenue from 2026 to 2036	USD 29.6 billion

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

Analyst Perspective

“The microgrid buyer is paying to keep specified loads supplied when the main network fails. Storage, controls and protection have to pass that operating test together; a grant or announced project does not prove the system is energised.”

- Sudip Saha, Co-founder, FMI

How is the Microgrid Market segmented?

Configuration describes whether a site normally connects to a wider grid. Application identifies the main customer setting. Power-source mix classifies new installations by count: systems combining renewable generation with another generation source or storage are grouped in the hybrid renewable segment. Each new installation is assigned once within that breakdown.

• By Configuration: Grid-tied; remote or islanded.
• By Application: Commercial and industrial; communities; public facilities; utilities.
• By Power-Source Mix of 2026 New Installations by Count: Hybrid renewable segment; single-source renewable systems without storage; CHP systems without renewable generation; non-CHP natural gas systems without renewable generation; other nonrenewable systems excluding the preceding categories.
• By Region: North America; Latin America; Western Europe; Eastern Europe; East Asia; South Asia and Pacific; Middle East and Africa.

Why do grid-tied systems lead by configuration?

Grid-tied systems hold 72.0% of the 2026 microgrid market by configuration in FMI's outlook.

US resilience grants distinguish the electrical package from the funding for new generation. DOE's guidance for Section 40101(d) prohibits grant spending on a new generating facility but identifies batteries for disruptive events, microgrid controllers, cables, protective devices and transformers as potentially eligible microgrid components. [8] In FMI's reading, that boundary creates an identifiable package for control and distribution suppliers, whether the project integrates existing generation or obtains separate finance for a new generating source.

The network contract remains separate from grant eligibility. FERC's Order No. 2023 reforms large-generator transmission interconnection procedures, not every distribution-connected microgrid. [9] DOE advises grid-connected projects to consult the local utility early about studies, infrastructure upgrades and fees. [8] The utility work can therefore add to the owner's project budget even where the control and distribution equipment qualifies for support.

Table 2: Microgrid Market Share by Configuration, 2026

Leading Share	2026 market share
Grid-tied	72.0%
All Other Segments Combined Share	28.0%

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

Why are commercial and industrial sites the largest application?

Commercial and industrial sites account for 68.0% of the 2026 microgrid market by application in FMI's outlook.

Industrial customers bring both the electrical installation and a financing decision to the order. Eaton's Power Xpert offer includes feasibility, design, implementation and maintenance. [10] Its 2021 Las Piedras agreement with Enel X shows a specific commercial arrangement: Enel X was to build, own, operate and finance the solar-plus-storage microgrid, with Eaton providing installation expertise, its controller and plant distribution equipment. [21] The arrangement was designed to replace an upfront capital purchase with an operating expense for Eaton.

Schneider's design guidance assigns real-time network topology, load sharing, generator management and load shedding to Microgrid Operation, separately from energy management. It also specifies import and export control and grid-status monitoring. [11] Microgrid Advisor schedules resources against tariff and usage data. [2] These are separate software and electrical functions within the industrial installation. The Las Piedras agreement likewise allocated financing and plant electrical work to different parties, retaining Eaton's distribution and control scope alongside Enel X's planned asset ownership. [21]

Table 3: Microgrid Market Share by Application, 2026

Leading Share	2026 market share
Commercial and industrial	68.0%
All Other Segments Combined Share	32.0%

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

What supports the hybrid renewable segment as the leading power-source mix of 2026 new installations by count?

The hybrid renewable segment accounts for 45.0% of new microgrid installations by count in 2026 in FMI's power-source mix outlook.

FMI links this lead to projects that add renewable generation and storage around an existing source of firm power. PowerX's Kanegasaki project at Toyota Motor East Japan's Iwate factory combines solar and a battery with existing gas-engine generation; its emergency supply design includes facilities outside the factory. [6] The engine is retained within the renewable project rather than replaced by the battery. That makes controls connecting new and legacy resources part of the hybrid order, alongside the solar and storage equipment.

Projects in the hybrid renewable segment are classified before the other power-source categories, so a project with both solar and gas generation is counted here rather than again under natural gas. CHP and other nonrenewable categories exclude renewable generation. The 45.0% comparison measures new installations by count, separately from market value: each installation is counted once regardless of its project cost. The comparison therefore describes the mix of new projects, while the configuration and application shares describe the wider revenue market.

Table 4: Microgrid Market Share by Power-Source Mix of 2026 New Installations by Count

Leading Share	2026 market share
Hybrid renewable segment, share of new installations by count	45.0%
All Other Segments Combined Share	55.0%

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

What are the key drivers restraints and opportunities?

FMI's outlook adds USD 29.6 billion between 2026 and 2036. The commercial routes differ: public support pays for selected development work, third-party contracts finance industrial assets, and integrators supply the protection and control needed to connect them. Each route creates a different order scope.

Driver

Remote industrial development is bringing large loads into community-microgrid funding. DOE's May 2026 C-MAP solicitation includes integration with large energy users and assessment of advanced systems for industrial or other large-load customers. [5] Its March 2026 draft control and protection plan also addresses coordination between microgrids and utility controls. [12] FMI sees demand here for engineering that joins a large new customer to a local system, rather than for an isolated equipment purchase.

Restraint

Legacy equipment creates integration work that a standard controller does not remove. ABB's controller can connect to third-party batteries, governors, meters, fire systems and HVAC through IEC 61850, OPC, Modbus TCP or hardwired signals; its application still uses project-specific logic. [13] FMI finds that the mixed interfaces make software configuration and verification a material part of delivery. The published controller scope covers steady-state functions after a transition event, so the transition itself also needs to be covered in the system design.

Opportunity

There is an opportunity to move some commissioning work off site. Eaton's white paper describes importing customer load and tariff data into a virtual microgrid, demonstrating the proposed use cases and pre-configuring the controller before installation. [14] This gives engineering suppliers a defined service to sell before construction and a way to identify changes while the design is still editable. The simulation supports the site-specific design; it is not a record of field performance.

How do interconnection and operating rules affect purchasing?

Network rules change which parts of a project can be priced together. FERC's large-generator reforms apply to transmission interconnection and do not replace distribution-utility procedures. [9] China's December 2025 guidance places smart microgrids within coordinated main-grid and distribution planning, and permits flexible connection and disconnection while retaining economic, social and safety responsibilities. [7] A supplier bidding in either setting needs a price for the relevant network studies and interface work, rather than treating all local generation as if it followed one connection process.

What limits reliable islanded operation?

Protection settings face a different fault environment when the main grid is absent. DOE's March 2026 draft plan identifies changing fault-current levels during network switching and warns that conventional overcurrent protection can operate too slowly in systems dominated by power-electronic resources. [12] Sandia evaluates grid compatibility and communications interoperability at system level. [3] FMI finds that these constraints add protection studies and testing to a retrofit, particularly where battery inverters are expected to operate with relays originally selected for grid-connected conditions.

Where can suppliers win additional microgrid business?

Industrial sites can become anchors for a wider resilience project. Kanegasaki links Toyota Motor East Japan's factory resources to external disaster-response facilities, shelters and a school-meal centre, using existing gas engines alongside solar and storage. [6] The additional business is the electrical and control link beyond the factory boundary. In FMI's view, this opens work for local distribution and integration partners as well as the storage supplier; the stated emergency duration remains conditional on that combined resource arrangement.

Microgrid Market by Country (2026 to 2036)

Table 5: Microgrid Market Country Growth, 2026 to 2036

Country	CAGR
India	13.1%
China	11.2%
United States	9.8%
Germany	8.4%
Japan	7.9%

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

What supports India's 13.1% growth forecast?

NTPC identifies its NETRA AC microgrid as completed, with 4 MWp ground-mounted solar and a 1 MWh lithium-ion battery demonstrating grid-independent building operation. Its configuration also lists gasification, rooftop solar, a hydrogen fuel cell, a 3 MWh flow battery and a diesel generator. [18] FMI's forecast 13.1% CAGR from 2026 to 2036, the highest in this five-country outlook, includes the integration work required when resources with different operating characteristics share a local network.

Simhadri represents a different procurement scope. The National Green Hydrogen Mission register still lists the fuel-cell microgrid as under construction. [15] The Ministry of Power's original December 2021 description specified a 240 kW solid-oxide electrolyser supplied from nearby floating solar, high-pressure hydrogen storage and a 50 kW fuel cell intended to supply electricity from 5 p.m. to 7 a.m. [19] That is an overnight hydrogen-storage design, not a completed 2026 operating reference.

For Indian suppliers, the two disclosed designs point to different equipment packages: NETRA integrates several electrical resources, while Simhadri adds hydrogen production, storage and conversion. FMI sees the commercial opening in the associated controls, conversion equipment and engineering. NETRA's listed resources include both lithium-ion and flow batteries alongside fuel-cell generation, so the control scope spans several storage technologies within one campus. [18] Simhadri's outstanding construction status keeps its associated installation work distinct from the completed NETRA reference.

How does China's grid policy support microgrids?

China's grid policy gives smart microgrids a defined place within the national network programme. The NDRC and National Energy Administration's December 2025 guidance targets an initial coordinated main-grid, distribution and microgrid platform by 2030, followed by fuller coordination by 2035. [7] Microgrids are described as a useful complement to the larger networks, with local renewable consumption and reliability at remote locations and network ends among their functions. FMI ties China's forecast 11.2% CAGR from 2026 to 2036 to this policy-backed integration role, rather than treating local systems as replacements for the public grid.

The guidance also specifies work inside the microgrid: matching generation, network, load and storage, increasing self-consumption of renewable electricity and enabling flexible connected or disconnected operation. Those functions sit under economic, social and safety responsibilities. [7] For control and electrical-equipment vendors, the resulting opportunity is tied to dispatch and interface capability. A solar installation serving an industrial site does not acquire the same scope merely because it uses locally generated electricity.

Procurement will also be shaped by the policy's treatment of access and tariffs. It calls for improved connection standards and management procedures, clearer safety responsibilities between the grid and connected entities, and a single capacity-based network tariff for business models involving nearby renewable consumption. [7] These are directions for the network framework. In FMI's reading, they make the grid relationship commercially consequential: the connected entity's obligations and network charge sit alongside its generation and storage costs. Vendors developing industrial-park systems will therefore be working within a changing connection and pricing framework as the 2030 programme advances.

What sustains microgrid demand in the United States?

US demand reaches two distinct spending pools: remote-area project support and industrial investment. DOE's May 2026 C-MAP solicitation offered up to USD 2.5 million directly and about USD 1 million in technical assistance. It targeted eligible places with no more than 10,000 residents and high electricity prices, with topics covering regional coordination, system upgrades and large-load industrial assessment. [5] The support is consequently concentrated on specific local development problems; it is not an unrestricted equipment rebate.

Siemens' Wendell campus supplies the private industrial reference. The May 2026 operating project combines a 1.25 MW AC solar installation, a 3.9 MWh battery, protection and control equipment, building-management software and EV charging. [1] FMI's forecast 9.8% CAGR from 2026 to 2036 reflects a market in which integration reaches into the manufacturing site's electrical network, including the distribution and software equipment used by the existing campus.

Funding and network approval remain separate purchase conditions. FERC's Order No. 2023 reforms large-generator transmission interconnection, so its procedures cannot be assumed to apply to every distribution-connected customer system. [9] DOE's Section 40101(d) guide also separates potentially eligible controls, batteries and distribution work from prohibited spending on a new generating facility. [8] FMI finds that the US order can therefore be split across development assistance, eligible resilience equipment and separately financed generation. Suppliers need to match their scope to that funding and connection structure.

What gives Germany a distinct market argument?

Germany's industrial microgrid work includes hydrogen storage as well as electrical batteries. At Wilopark in Dortmund, Wilo and Schneider Electric have built a system combining photovoltaics, electrolysis, hydrogen storage and a fuel cell. The NRW project register lists storage for up to 520 kg of hydrogen and production of up to 10 tonnes a year, with recovered heat also used. [22] That combination creates an equipment and integration scope extending beyond the factory's electrical controls. Schneider separately offers Microgrid Advisor in Germany for monitoring, forecasting and resource optimisation. [17]

Grid separation has an older German technical reference. In August 2017, Siemens and its partners reported the Wildpoldsried island-network trial, using a 300 kW, 138 kWh battery; the work included restoring local supply after a deliberate interruption. [16] FMI reads this as evidence of a tested control sequence at that location, not a newly commissioned 2026 project. It addresses network transitions, whereas the Wilopark hydrogen project adds a different storage and conversion chain.

This variety underpins Germany's forecast 8.4% CAGR from 2026 to 2036. The commercial work differs by site: a battery-led local network needs electrical switching and fast resource coordination, while a hydrogen-backed factory adds an electrolyser, storage and fuel-cell interfaces. Wilo's stated objective of up to two days of site autonomy is a long-term intention, not a demonstrated duration in the project register. [22] FMI sees demand for the electrical and hydrogen integration work needed to bring these different resources into industrial supply.

How does Japan turn resilience plans into operating projects?

Japan has a measured regional islanding reference as well as new operating dates. At Hinode in Shimizu Port, a February 2026 trial disconnected about half the supply area from Chubu Electric Power Grid's lines and supplied 23 customers for roughly three hours using solar and batteries. Suzuyo Shoji and J-POWER reported the trial in March. [20] PowerX subsequently dated Hinode's operating start to 24 March and Kanegasaki's to 1 April 2026. [6] This sequence supports Japan's forecast 7.9% CAGR from 2026 to 2036 through documented regional projects, while the trial result remains specific to the tested area and duration.

The resource packages differ. Hinode uses 1,008 kW DC of solar across three locations, a 1,950 kW/5,484 kWh battery and an area-wide energy-management system. [20] Kanegasaki combines Toyota Motor East Japan's factory solar and storage with existing gas engines; its design provides more than three days of emergency supply to designated external facilities under that combined arrangement. [6] The longer-duration claim is therefore not a battery-only performance figure.

Expansion also has a physical constraint. Suzuyo says conventional solar deployment at Hinode is limited by roof load-bearing capacity and is examining next-generation solar technologies for a second phase. [23] In FMI's view, that creates a defined opening for additional generation and integration work at an existing regional system, with the later technology choice still under consideration. The port's expansion work thus extends beyond adding battery units: the next generation stage has to fit the buildings available for installation.

Who are the notable companies in the Microgrid Market?

Siemens, Schneider Electric, Eaton and PowerX occupy different contractual positions in the microgrid chain. Siemens' Wendell campus uses its controller, relays, switchboards, inverters and building-management software within one operating industrial project. [1] Schneider's design guidance separates local operating functions from the energy-management layer, while Eaton's Power Xpert offer includes feasibility, implementation and maintenance. [11][10] PowerX supplies the batteries used by locally led Japanese regional projects. [6]

The financing and installation roles are visible in Eaton's Las Piedras agreement. Enel X was to build, own, operate and finance the system, and Eaton was to provide installation expertise, the controller and distribution equipment. [21] FMI finds that this division places asset ownership, plant electrical work and control technology in separate parts of the same contract structure, with the project financier working alongside the plant's electrical supplier.

Software competes on another part of the scope. Schneider's Microgrid Advisor schedules resources against tariff and usage data. [2] Eaton offers configured local and system controllers with a human-machine interface and historian. [10] These disclosures show separate offers for resource scheduling, electrical integration and project services within the microgrid supply chain.

Key Developments in the Microgrid Market

• On 11 May 2026, Siemens unveiled its 1.25 MW AC microgrid at Wendell, North Carolina, with solar generation and a 3.9 MWh battery energy storage system. [1]
• On 24 April 2026, PowerX reported operating starts for the Kanegasaki and Hinode regional microgrids, dated 1 April and 24 March 2026 respectively. [6]
• On 23 July 2026, Nexans presented the AmpaCity DC microgrid developed with Schneider Electric and VINCI Energies; the subsequent addition of solar panels remained planned. [4]

Key Players in the Microgrid Market

• Siemens
• Schneider Electric
• Eaton
• PowerX
• Nexans
• ABB

Microgrid Market Report Scope

Table 6: Microgrid Market Report Scope, 2026 to 2036

Coverage field	Report scope
Market definition	Coordinated local electrical systems serving a defined boundary with controlled resources and required islanding capability.
Included supply	Microgrid controls, protection, integrated generation and storage, associated engineering and commissioning within the system boundary.
Excluded supply	Standalone batteries, solar arrays and generators sold without coordinated microgrid operation; bulk network investment outside the boundary.
Quantitative units	USD billion for market value; percentage for CAGR and segment comparisons. Power-source mix uses the share of 2026 new installations by count.
Reference and forecast period	2025 reference value, 2026 base year and 2036 forecast.
Configuration coverage	Grid-tied and remote or islanded systems.
Application coverage	Commercial and industrial sites, communities, public facilities and utilities.
Power-source mix of 2026 new installations by count coverage	Share of 2026 new installations by count. Projects in the hybrid renewable segment are assigned once; the other categories exclude that combination and do not overlap.
Geographic coverage	Seven global regions; detailed country profiles for India, China, United States, Germany and Japan.
Commercial coverage	Interconnection, islanding, controls integration, resilience funding, repeatable design and operating acceptance.

Source: Future Market Insights, Microgrid Market Report, 2026 to 2036.

Microgrid Market Research Methodology

The assessment uses FMI's market-value and country-growth outlook and its configuration, application and power-source mix findings for the same period. Power-source mix is measured by the count of new installations and kept separate from market value. Government programme documents, technical research and company product and operating disclosures support the commercial analysis. Planned, funded and operating activity are distinguished through secondary-source review.

Microgrid Market by Segments

Microgrid Market segmented by Configuration:

• Grid-tied
• Remote or islanded

Microgrid Market segmented by Application:

• Commercial and industrial
• Communities
• Public facilities
• Utilities

Microgrid Market segmented by Power-Source Mix of 2026 New Installations by Count:

• Hybrid renewable segment
• Single-source renewable systems without storage
• CHP systems without renewable generation
• Non-CHP natural gas systems without renewable generation
• Other nonrenewable systems excluding the preceding categories

Microgrid Market by Region

• North America
  • United States
  • Canada
• Latin America
  • Brazil
  • Mexico
  • Argentina
  • Chile
• Western Europe
  • Germany
  • France
  • United Kingdom
  • Italy
  • Spain
  • Benelux
  • Nordics
• Eastern Europe
  • Poland
  • Czech Republic
  • Romania
  • Hungary
• East Asia
  • China
  • Japan
  • South Korea
  • Taiwan
• South Asia and Pacific
  • India
  • Singapore
  • Other ASEAN countries
  • Australia and New Zealand
• Middle East and Africa
  • GCC Countries
  • South Africa
  • Türkiye
  • Israel

Research Sources and Bibliography

• [1] Siemens. Siemens unveils state-of-the-art microgrid at Wendell headquarters, commemorates with electrification celebration. 11 May 2026.
• [2] Schneider Electric. EcoStruxure Microgrid Advisor, product description. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [3] Sandia National Laboratories. Advanced Microgrids, facilities and system evaluation. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [4] Nexans. Direct current in buildings: Nexans unveils its AmpaCity microgrid. 23 July 2026.
• [5] US Department of Energy. Up to USD 3.5M Available to Strengthen Microgrids in Remote Regions. May 2026.
• [6] PowerX. Two regional microgrid projects using PowerX storage begin operation. 24 April 2026. Japanese-language company disclosure.
• [7] National Development and Reform Commission and National Energy Administration, China. Guiding opinions on promoting high-quality development of the power grid, Fa Gai Neng Yuan 2025 No. 1710. 26 December 2025; posted 31 December 2025.
• [8] US Department of Energy, Grid Deployment Office. Microgrid Overview. February 2024.
• [9] US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. Explainer on the Interconnection Final Rule. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [10] Eaton. Microgrid and distributed energy resources, Power Xpert Energy Optimizer. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [11] Schneider Electric. Microgrid, EcoStruxure Power Digital Applications design guidance. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [12] US Department of Energy, Office of Electricity. Microgrids R&D Strategic Plans, Topic 5: Advanced Microgrid Control and Protection. March 2026 draft report, hosted April 2026.
• [13] ABB. Microgrid power management controller, interfaces and system architecture. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [14] Eaton. Making microgrids work, integrated control and virtual testing white paper. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [15] Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. National Green Hydrogen Mission project register, Simhadri microgrid entries. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [16] Siemens. Successful test of island grid as milestone for an energy transition project, Wildpoldsried, Germany. 2017.
• [17] Schneider Electric Deutschland. EcoStruxure Microgrid Advisor. Accessed 31 October 2026.
• [18] NTPC Limited. AC Microgrid at Netra (1 MWh BESS integrated with 4 MWp ground-mounted solar PV), status: Completed. Accessed 1 November 2026.
• [19] Government of India, Ministry of Power. India’s first; and one of world’s largest Green Hydrogen Microgrid Projects to be set up at Simhadri. 15 December 2021.
• [20] Suzuyo Shoji and J-POWER. Hinode regional microgrid activation test at Shimizu Port. 9 March 2026. Japanese-language joint company disclosure.
• [21] Eaton. Eaton and Enel X expand clean energy infrastructure, strengthen energy resilience in Puerto Rico with second microgrid. 6 October 2021.
• [22] Hydrogen Map NRW. Wilo H2 Powerplant, Wilopark Dortmund, project register. Accessed 1 November 2026.
• [23] Suzuyo Shoji. Opening of the Hinode regional energy supply project at Shimizu Port. 24 March 2026. Japanese-language company disclosure.